Developing Brains

"The emerging science of brain development shows that to develop properly, a child’s growing brain needs nurturing long before formal schooling starts at age 6 or 7. Investments in prenatal health and early childhood development programs that include education and health are essential to realize this potential." World Bank, 2011.

This volume in the Early Childhood in Focus series from the Child and Youth Studies Group at The Open University, United Kingdom, aims to present an overview of the most significant areas of research in neuroscience, starting in the first section with sufficient basic explanation of the brain and how it functions for the research to be understood by people with little or no previous knowledge of the field. The second section gives an overview of the developmental processes involved as the child’s brain grows and matures in constant interaction with the environment, from conception through to adulthood. The third section focuses on the powerful effects of early environments, both physical and social. It is a publication of the Bernard van Leer Foundation.

The first section illustrates brain structure and function:

• Policy questions, including:
  • "Are persons who are responsible for policy decisions and their implementation sufficiently knowledgeable about young children’s brain development?
  • What procedures exist to scan for new neuroscience research findings of significance for early childhood education and care?
  • How effectively are relevant insights from research disseminated among public services, NGOs [non-governmental organisations]and others responsible for promoting young children’s development?
  • Are there adequate continuing professional development programmes in operation to ensure that those responsible for making and delivering policies are able to assess the scientific validity of claims regarding neuroscience implications for early childhood education and care?
  • If healthy brain development is part of every child’s rights in early childhood, what are the implications for national policies?"

The second section illustrates brain development, including:

• Before birth;
• Neural growth and pruning;
• Myelination and cognitive development;
• Sensitive periods - "Different components of the brain have peak periods of construction at different times during development from conception through early childhood...";
• Localisation and lateralisation;
• Networks and resting states;
• The social brain - "Human faces and voices are intrinsically rewarding for the human newborn, as shown by the fact that infants orient to and enjoy them over other kinds of visual or auditory stimulation....In parallel to learning about people, infants’ brains are prepared to communicate with, and learn from, adults....This involves establishing eye contact, using a 'sing-song' voice (referred to as motherese or parentese) and/or repeatedly calling the infant’s name."
• Objects of attention - "Difficulties with attention also explain why some children struggle to learn, and can be an important focus for intervention. For example, recent studies have shown how children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), at risk of poor outcomes both in and outside the classroom, have difficulties modulating neural networks that are actively engaged in controlling action; they also have problems suppressing active networks when thinking...."; and
• Policy questions including:
  • "What steps can be taken to improve public and professional understanding of the crucial importance of the early months and years of life for brain development, through education, media and public awareness campaigns?
  • Do policies for ECEC [early childhood education centres] recognise that there are periods of sensitivity in brain development, both before and after a child’s birth, and that it is crucial that adequate environmental support is present for mothers and their babies during these periods?
  • Are young children getting enough ‘resting state’ opportunities as well as stimulation, or are their family lifestyles too challenging to allow opportunities for rest?
  • Do adequate health screening programmes exist to detect early signs of brain damage or dysfunction in young children, and offer appropriate early intervention, guidance and support?
  • Are young children’s behavioural difficulties being treated effectively by ‘multi-pronged’ approaches rather than simply relying on medication?
  • Is the crucial significance of perinatal care, including good nutrition, properly realised in policies and practices for pregnant and breastfeeding mothers, and for their children?"

The third section illustrates environmental influences, including:

• Development of the visual system;
• Language acquisition in the monolingual and bilingual child - "Early bilingualism has long-term effects on the underlying brain structures devoted to language and perhaps to other cognitive abilities....Research with young infants has clearly shown that there are no difficulties in dealing simultaneously with more than one language...but that the refined brain mechanisms that they bring to bear on the acquisition of two languages have the potential to enhance other aspects of their cognitive development....";
• The importance of sleep for learning;
• Diet and nutrition in brain development;
• The effects of early psychosocial deprivation - According to research, children with a history of institutionalisation show reduced brain development in a number of areas of the brain;
• Maltreatment, genetics, and brain development - "Recent research has begun to show how adverse caregiving experiences can affect brain structures and function, and how these may in turn impact on psychological and emotional development"; and
• Policy questions, including:
  • "Are teachers, care workers and other practitioners aware of the factors that put young children’s brain development at risk?
  • What public health systems are in operation to screen for and identify potential environmental risks for negative effects on brain development during pregnancy and early childhood? Are they adequate?
  • Are there public education programmes that are operating effectively to educate parents about the minimal standards of care, nutrition and living environments needed to avoid neurodevelopmental harms?
  • Are practitioners sufficiently well educated in strategies to help parents to avoid or ameliorate 'toxic' stress?
  • What policies, programmes and practices are in place to support families in maintaining stable and growth-promoting relationships?
  • Are children being given adequate opportunities to sleep soundly and for sufficiently long periods, and are parents aware of the importance of sleep for brain development?
  • Are there robust and sensitive child protection procedures in place to detect early, and rapidly deal with, cases of child neglect and abuse?
  • How can children’s brain development be promoted as a national and community priority, in ways that take account of diverse living conditions, cultural expectations for mothers and children, and resources to support them?"